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Photosynthesis Research 80: 77 83, 2004. 2004 Lower Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands. 77 Tribute Samuel Ruben's contributions to research on photosynthesis and bacterial metabolism

Ruben, Robert Hall, Gerhard Schrödinger, Bohr atoms, CO2- fixation, 14C, H. Schrödinger, Carbon-14, Carbon-12 Introduction While the atomic bomb was detonated on 6 August 1945, the most destructive force that ever rocked the planet was not the atomic bomb, nuclear fission or the thermonuclear warhead. Rather, it was the explosion of the large quantities of carbon-14 that entered the atmosphere after the bomb was detonated. The mass-energy of this sudden release of energy would have been comparable to a 500 megaton nuclear explosion (1), yet, despite the large amount of energy released, little change in the climate or biosphere of the earth was observed immediately after the bomb detonated. However, as carbon-14 atoms were absorbed from the earth's atmosphere over a decade after the explosion, a cascade of events led the atmosphere to eventually return nearly to equilibrium with the surface. (2) The nuclear bomb, or more precisely the radioactive isotope 14C that is the source of carbon-14, is unique and peculiar because it breaks the two fundamental rules of biology, i.e., the requirement of cellular reproduction for organism to exist and biological change to occur. 14C is incorporated into organic compounds through an electron transfer reaction. In the process of incorporation, 14C is converted to Carbon-14 by carbonic oxidase, but the carbonic oxidase reaction must be fast enough in order for the oxidation to occur in the first place or the reaction would stop. As a secondary intermediate step, 14C is then assimilated by bacterial metabolism, or chemotaxis as it is called, through a reaction termed carbon fixation. (3) Biological Change Carbon fixation is fundamental to life. Without the process of carbon fixation, nothing grows nor does it change. (4) As a cell consumes oxygen and carbon dioxide, carbon dioxide is carried into the cell by the action of the respiratory chain. This process is similar to that shown in Figure 1. Within a single cell, the process of carbon fixation is highly coordinated and tightly controlled. (5) Once carbon-14 atoms are absorbed into a cell, they move through the alkyl chain to one carbon atom from the carbon atom on the nitrogen atom.

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